A&P @ LCC by Dr. Prince

Learning Outcomes by Chapter and Section
Learning Outcomes for BIOL 2302

Ch. 16. The Endocrine System
3.16 Discuss the structure and function of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles.
12.8 Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions.
16.1 Indicate important differences between hormonal and neural controls of body functioning.
16.2 List the major endocrine organs, and describe their body locations.
16.4 Describe how hormones are classified chemically.
16.5 Describe the two major mechanisms by which hormones bring about their effects on their target tissues.
16.6 Explain how hormone release is regulated.
16.7 List three kinds of interaction of different hormones acting on the same target cell.
16.8 Describe structural and functional relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
16.9 Discuss the structure of the posterior pituitary, and describe the effects of the two hormones it releases.
16.10 List and describe the chief effects of anterior pituitary hormones.
16.11 Describe the effects of the two groups of hormones produced by the thyroid gland.
16.12 Follow the process of thyroxine formation and release.
16.13 Indicate the general functions of parathyroid hormone.
16.14 List hormones produced by the adrenal gland, and cite their physiological effects.
16.15 Briefly describe the importance of melatonin.
16.16 Compare and contrast the effects of the two major pancreatic hormones.
16.17 Describe the functional roles of hormones of the testes, ovaries, and placenta.
16.18 State the location of enteroendocrine cells.
16.19 Briefly explain the hormonal functions of the heart, kidney, skin, adipose tissue, bone, and thymus.

Ch. 17. Blood
11.3 List the types of neuroglia and cite their functions.
17.1 List eight functions of blood.
17.2 Describe the composition and physical characteristics of whole blood. Explain why it is classified as a connective tissue.
17.3 Discuss the composition and functions of plasma.
17.4 Describe the structure, function, and production of erythrocytes.
17.5 Describe the chemical composition of hemoglobin.
17.6 Give examples of disorders caused by abnormalities of erythrocytes. Explain what goes wrong in each disorder.
17.7 List the classes, structural characteristics, and functions of leukocytes.
17.8 Describe how leukocytes are produced.
17.9 Give examples of leukocyte disorders, and explain what goes wrong in each disorder.
17.10 Describe the structure and function of platelets.
17.11 Describe the process of hemostasis. List factors that limit clot formation and prevent undesirable clotting.
17.12 Give examples of hemostatic disorders. Indicate the cause of each condition.
17.13 Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups. Explain the basis of transfusion reactions.
17.14 Describe fluids used to replace blood volume and the circumstances for their use.
17.15 Explain the diagnostic importance of blood testing.
28.9 Define organogenesis and indicate the important roles of the three primary germ layers in this process.

Ch. 18. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
9.18 Compare and contrast the contractile mechanisms and the means of activation of skeletal and smooth muscles.
18.1 Describe the size, shape, location, and orientation of the heart in the thorax.
18.2 Name the coverings of the heart.
18.3 Describe the structure and function of each of the three layers of the heart wall.
18.4 Describe the structure and functions of the four heart chambers. Name each chamber and provide the name and general route of its associated great vessel(s).
18.5 Name the heart valves and describe their location, function, and mechanism of operation.
18.6 Trace the pathway of blood through the heart.
18.7 Name the major branches and describe the distribution of the coronary arteries.
18.8 Describe the structural and functional properties of cardiac muscle, and explain how it differs from skeletal muscle.
18.9 Briefly describe the events of excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscle cells.
18.10 Describe and compare action potentials in cardiac pacemaker and contractile cells.
18.11 Name the components of the conduction system of the heart, and trace the conduction pathway.
18.12 Draw a diagram of a normal electrocardiogram tracing. Name the individual waves and intervals, and indicate what each represents. Name some abnormalities that can be detected on an ECG tracing.
18.13 Describe the timing and events of the cardiac cycle.
18.14 Describe normal heart sounds, and explain how heart murmurs differ.
18.15 Name and explain the effects of various factors regulating stroke volume and heart rate.
18.16 Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system in regulating cardiac output.

Ch. 19. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
14.9 State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs: heart, blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, adrenal medulla, and external genitalia.
14.10 Describe autonomic nervous system controls.
14.11 Explain the relationship of some types of hypertension, Raynaud's disease, and autonomic dysreflexia to disorders of autonomic function.
16.10 List and describe the chief effects of anterior pituitary hormones.
19.1 Describe the three layers that typically form the wall of a blood vessel, and state the function of each.
19.2 Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
19.3 Compare and contrast the structure and function of the three types of arteries.
19.4 Describe the structure and function of a capillary bed.
19.5 Describe the structure and function of veins, and explain how veins differ from arteries.
19.6 Explain the importance of vascular anastomoses.
19.7 Define blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance, and explain the relationships between these factors.
19.8 Describe how blood pressure differs in the arteries, capillaries, and veins.
19.9 List and explain the factors that influence blood pressure, and describe how blood pressure is regulated.
19.10 Define hypertension. Describe its manifestations and consequences.
19.11 Define circulatory shock. List several possible causes.
19.12 Explain how blood flow through tissues is regulated in general and in specific organs.
19.13 Outline factors involved in capillary exchange and bulk flow, and explain the significance of each.
19.14 Trace the pathway of blood through the pulmonary circuit, and state the importance of this special circulation.
19.15 Describe the general functions of the systemic circuit.
19.16 Name and give the location of the major arteries and veins in the systemic circulation.
19.17 Describe the structure and special function of the hepatic portal system.

Ch. 20. The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
17.8 Describe how leukocytes are produced.
19.4 Describe the structure and function of a capillary bed.
19.13 Outline factors involved in capillary exchange and bulk flow, and explain the significance of each.
20.1 List the functions of the lymphatic vessels.
20.2 Describe the structure and distribution of lymphatic vessels.
20.3 Describe the source of lymph and mechanism(s) of lymph transport.
20.4 Describe the basic structure and cellular population of lymphoid tissue. Differentiate between diffuse and follicular lymphoid tissues.
20.5 Describe the general location, histological structure, and functions of lymph nodes.
20.6 Compare and contrast the structure and function of the spleen and lymph nodes.
20.7 Define MALT and list its major components.
20.8 Describe the structure and function of the thymus.

Ch. 21. The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses
12.12 Identify the brain areas involved in language and memory.
19.7 Define blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance, and explain the relationships between these factors.
21.1 Describe surface membrane barriers and their protective functions.
21.2 Explain the importance of phagocytosis, natural killer cells, and fever in innate body defense.
21.3 Describe the inflammatory process. Identify several inflammatory chemicals and indicate their specific roles.
21.4 Name the body's antimicrobial substances and describe their function.
21.5 Define antigen and describe how antigens affect the adaptive defenses.
21.6 Define complete antigen, hapten, and antigenic determinant.
21.7 Compare and contrast the origin, maturation process, and general function of B and T lymphocytes.
21.8 Define immunocompetence and self-tolerance, and describe their development in B and T lymphocytes.
21.9 Name several antigen-presenting cells and describe their roles in adaptive defenses.
21.10 Define humoral immunity.
21.11 Describe the process of clonal selection of a B cell and recount the roles of plasma cells and memory cells in humoral immunity.
21.12 Compare and contrast active and passive humoral immunity.
21.13 Describe the structure and functions of antibodies and name the five antibody classes.
21.14 Define cellular immunity and describe the process of activation and clonal selection of T cells.
21.15 Describe the roles of different types of T cells.
21.16 Describe T cell functions in the body.
21.17 Give examples of immunodeficiency diseases and of hypersensitivity states.
21.18 Cite factors involved in autoimmune disease.

Ch. 22. The Respiratory System
19.9 List and explain the factors that influence blood pressure, and describe how blood pressure is regulated.
22.1 Describe the location, structure, and function of each of the following: nose, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
22.2 List and describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system.
22.3 Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures.
22.4 Describe the structure, function, and location of the larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
22.5 Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane, and relate structure to function.
22.6 Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageway(s) in descending order until you reach the alveoli.
22.7 Describe the gross structure of the lungs and pleurae.
22.8 Explain the functional importance of the partial vacuum that exists in the intrapleural space.
22.9 Relate Boyle's law to events of inspiration and expiration.
22.10 Explain the relative roles of the respiratory muscles and lung elasticity in producing the volume changes that cause air to flow into and out of the lungs.
22.11 List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation.
22.12 Explain and compare the various lung volumes and capacities.
22.13 Define dead space.
22.14 Indicate types of information that can be gained from pulmonary function tests.
22.15 State Dalton's law of partial pressures and Henry's law.
22.16 Describe how atmospheric and alveolar air differ in composition, and explain these differences.
22.17 Relate Dalton's and Henry's laws to events of external and internal respiration.
22.18 Describe how oxygen is transported in blood.
22.19 Explain how temperature, pH, BPG, and PCO2 affect oxygen loading and unloading.
22.20 Describe carbon dioxide transport in the blood.
22.21 Describe the neural controls of respiration.
22.22 Compare and contrast the influences of arterial pH, arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, lung reflexes, volition, and emotions on respiratory rate and depth.
22.24 Describe the process and effects of acclimatization to high altitude.
22.25 Compare the causes and consequences of chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, tuberculosis, and lung cancer.

Ch. 23. The Digestive System
3.5 Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
9.1 Compare and contrast the three basic types of muscle tissue.
9.19 Distinguish between unitary and multi unit smooth muscle structurally and functionally.
19.4 Describe the structure and function of a capillary bed.
23.1 Describe the functions of the digestive system, and differentiate between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs.
23.2 List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity.
23.3 Describe the location and function of the peritoneum.
23.4 Define retroperitoneal and name the retroperitoneal organs of the digestive system.
23.5 Define splanchnic circulation and indicate the importance of the hepatic portal system.
23.6 Describe the tissue composition and general function of each of the four layers of the alimentary canal.
23.7 Describe stimuli and controls of digestive activity.
23.8 Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy and the basic functions of the mouth and its associated organs.
23.9 Describe the composition and functions of saliva, and explain how salivation is regulated.
23.10 Explain the dental formula and differentiate clearly between deciduous and permanent teeth.
23.11 Describe the anatomy and basic functions of the pharynx and esophagus.
23.12 Describe the mechanism of swallowing.
23.13 Describe stomach structure and indicate changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function.
23.14 Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice and indicate the importance of each component in stomach activity.
23.15 Explain how gastric secretion and stomach motility are regulated.
23.17 Describe the histologic anatomy of the liver and pancreas.
23.18 State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice in digestion.
23.19 Describe the role of the gallbladder.
23.20 Describe how bile and pancreatic juice secretion into the small intestine are regulated.
23.21 Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process.
23.22 Differentiate between the roles of the various cell types of the intestinal mucosa.
23.23 Describe the functions of intestinal hormones and paracrines.
23.24 List the major functions of the large intestine.
23.26 Describe the general processes of digestion and absorption.
23.27 List the enzymes involved in digestion; name the foodstuffs on which they act.
23.28 List the end products of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid digestion.
23.29 Describe the process by which breakdown products of foodstuffs are absorbed in the small intestine.
24.24 Describe several metabolic functions of the liver.

Ch. 24. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance
2.20 Describe enzyme action.
3.7 Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to substances transported, direction, and mechanism.
16.11 Describe the effects of the two groups of hormones produced by the thyroid gland.
23.6 Describe the tissue composition and general function of each of the four layers of the alimentary canal.
23.13 Describe stomach structure and indicate changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function.
23.14 Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice and indicate the importance of each component in stomach activity.
23.15 Explain how gastric secretion and stomach motility are regulated.
23.18 State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice in digestion.
23.21 Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process.
23.22 Differentiate between the roles of the various cell types of the intestinal mucosa.
24.1 Define nutrient, essential nutrient, and calorie.
24.2 List the five major nutrient categories. Note important sources and main cellular uses.
24.3 Distinguish between simple and complex carbohydrate sources.
24.4 Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fatty acid sources.
24.5 Distinguish between nutritionally complete and incomplete proteins.
24.6 Define nitrogen balance and indicate possible causes of positive and negative nitrogen balance.
24.7 Indicate the major uses of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the body.
24.8 Distinguish between fat- and water-soluble vitamins, and list the vitamins in each group.
24.9 For each vitamin, list important sources, body functions, and important consequences of its deficit or excess.
24.10 List minerals essential for health.
24.12 Define metabolism. Explain how catabolism and anabolism differ.
24.13 Define oxidation and reduction and indicate the importance of these reactions in metabolism.
24.15 Explain the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
24.16 Summarize important events and products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport.
24.17 Define glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis.
24.18 Describe the process by which fatty acids are oxidized for energy.
24.19 Define ketone bodies, and indicate the stimulus for their formation.
24.20 Describe how amino acids are metabolized for energy.
24.22 Explain the concept of amino acid or carbohydrate-fat pools, and describe pathways by which substances in these pools can be interconverted.
24.23 Summarize important events of the absorptive and postabsorptive states, and explain how these events are regulated.
24.24 Describe several metabolic functions of the liver.
24.25 Differentiate between LDLs and HDLs relative to their structures and major roles in the body.
24.27 Describe several theories of food intake regulation.
24.28 Define basal metabolic rate and total metabolic rate. Name factors that influence each.
24.29 Distinguish between core and shell body temperature.
24.30 Describe how body temperature is regulated, and indicate the common mechanisms regulating heat production/retention and heat loss from the body.

Ch.25. The Urinary System
1.4 List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the major function(s) of each system.
3.8 Differentiate between primary and secondary active transport.
23.7 Describe stimuli and controls of digestive activity.
23.25 Describe the regulation of defecation.
25.1 Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney and its coverings.
25.2 Trace the blood supply through the kidney.
25.3 Describe the anatomy of a nephron.
25.4 List and define the three major renal processes.
25.5 Describe the forces (pressures) that promote or counteract glomerular filtration.
25.6 Compare the intrinsic and extrinsic controls of the glomerular filtration rate.
25.7 Describe the mechanisms underlying water and solute reabsorption from the renal tubules into the peritubular capillaries.
25.8 Describe how sodium and water reabsorption are regulated in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
25.9 Describe the importance of tubular secretion and list several substances that are secreted.
25.10 Describe the mechanisms responsible for the medullary osmotic gradient.
25.11 Explain how dilute and concentrated urine are formed.
25.12 Define renal clearance and explain how this value summarizes the way a substance is handled by the kidney.
25.13 Describe the normal physical and chemical properties of urine.
25.14 List several abnormal urine components, and name the condition characterized by the presence of detectable amounts of each.
25.15 Describe the general location, structure, and function of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
25.16 Compare the course, length, and functions of the male urethra with those of the female.
25.17 Define micturition and describe its neural control.
26.16 Describe how the kidneys regulate hydrogen and bicarbonate ion concentrations in the blood.

Ch. 26. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
2.15 Define acid and base, and explain the concept of pH.
2.20 Describe enzyme action.
3.6 Relate plasma membrane structure to passive transport processes.
3.7 Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to substances transported, direction, and mechanism.
18.10 Describe and compare action potentials in cardiac pacemaker and contractile cells.
25.7 Describe the mechanisms underlying water and solute reabsorption from the renal tubules into the peritubular capillaries.
26.1 List the factors that determine body water content and describe the effect of each factor.
26.2 Indicate the relative fluid volume and solute composition of the fluid compartments of the body.
26.3 Contrast the overall osmotic effects of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.
26.4 Describe factors that determine fluid shifts in the body.
26.5 List the routes by which water enters and leaves the body.
26.6 Describe feedback mechanisms that regulate water intake and hormonal controls of water output in urine.
26.7 Explain the importance of obligatory water losses.
26.8 Describe possible causes and consequences of dehydration and of hypotonic hydration.
26.9 Indicate routes of electrolyte entry and loss from the body.
26.10 Describe the importance of sodium in the body's fluid and electrolyte balance.
26.11 Describe mechanisms involved in regulating sodium balance, blood volume, and blood pressure.
26.12 Explain how potassium, calcium, and anion balances in plasma are regulated.
26.13 List important sources of acids in the body.
26.14 List the three major chemical buffer systems of the body and describe how they resist pH changes.
26.15 Describe the influence of the respiratory system on acid-base balance.
26.16 Describe how the kidneys regulate hydrogen and bicarbonate ion concentrations in the blood.
26.17 Distinguish between acidosis and alkalosis resulting from respiratory and metabolic factors.
26.18 Describe the importance of respiratory and renal compensations in maintaining acid-base balance.

Ch. 27. The Reproductive System
16.10 List and describe the chief effects of anterior pituitary hormones.
27.1 Describe the structure and function of the testes, and explain the importance of their location in the scrotum.
27.2 Describe the location, structure, and function of the penis.
27.3 Compare and contrast the roles of each part of the male reproductive duct system.
27.4 Compare the roles of the seminal glands and the prostate.
27.5 Discuss the sources and functions of semen.
27.6 Describe the phases of the male sexual response.
27.7 Define meiosis. Compare and contrast it to mitosis.
27.8 Outline the events of spermatogenesis.
27.9 Discuss hormonal regulation of testicular function and the physiological effects of testosterone on male reproductive anatomy.
27.10 Describe the location, structure, and function of the ovaries.
27.11 Describe the location, structure, and function of each of the organs of the female reproductive duct system.
27.12 Describe the anatomy of the female external genitalia.
27.13 Discuss the structure and function of the mammary glands.
27.14 Describe the process of oogenesis and compare it to spermatogenesis.
27.15 Discuss the stages of follicle development.
27.16 Describe ovarian cycle phases, and relate them to events of oogenesis.
27.17 Describe the regulation of the ovarian and uterine cycles.
27.18 Discuss the physiological effects of estrogens and progesterone.
27.19 Describe the phases of the female sexual response.
27.20 Indicate the infectious agents and modes of transmission of gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, genital warts, and genital herpes.

Ch. 28. Pregnancy and Human Development
22.5 Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane, and relate structure to function.
28.1 Describe the importance of sperm capacitation.
28.2 Explain the mechanisms behind the blocks to polyspermy.
28.3 Define fertilization.
28.4 Describe the process and product of cleavage.
28.5 Describe implantation.
28.6 Describe placenta formation, and list placental functions.
28.7 Name and describe the formation, location, and function of the extraembryonic membranes.
28.8 Describe gastrulation and its consequence.
28.9 Define organogenesis and indicate the important roles of the three primary germ layers in this process.
28.10 Describe unique features of the fetal circulation.
28.11 Indicate the duration of the fetal period, and note the major events of fetal development.
28.12 Describe functional changes in maternal reproductive organs and in the cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems during pregnancy.
28.13 Indicate the effects of pregnancy on maternal metabolism and posture.
28.14 Explain how labor is initiated, and describe the three stages of labor.
28.15 Outline the events leading to the first breath of a newborn.
28.16 Describe changes that occur in the fetal circulation after birth.
28.17 Explain how the breasts are prepared for lactation.
28.18 Describe some techniques of ART including IVF, ZIFT, and GIFT.

Ch. 29. Heredity
29.1 Define allele.
29.2 Differentiate between genotype and phenotype.
29.3 Describe events that lead to genetic variability of gametes.
29.4 Compare and contrast dominant-recessive inheritance with incomplete dominance and codominance.
29.5 Describe the mechanism of sex-linked inheritance.
29.6 Explain how polygene inheritance differs from that resulting from the action of a single pair of alleles.
29.7 Provide examples illustrating how gene expression may be modified by environmental factors.
29.8 Describe how RNA-only genes and epigenetic marks affect gene expression.
29.9 Describe the basis of extranuclear (mitochondria-based) genetic disorders.
29.10 List and explain several techniques used to determine or predict genetic diseases.

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